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| Constitution of the United States | |
|---|---|
 Page one of Jacob Shallus' officially engrossed copy of the Constitution signed in Philadelphia by delegates of the Constitutional Convention in 1787[1] | |
| Overview | |
| Jurisdiction | United States |
| Created | September 17, 1787 |
| Presented | September 28, 1787 |
| Ratified | June 21, 1788 (9 of 13 states) |
| Date effective | March 4, 1789[2] |
| System | Federal presidential republic |
| Government structure | |
| Branches | 3 |
| Chambers | Bicameral |
| Executive | President |
| Judiciary | Supreme, Circuits, Districts |
| Federalism | Yes |
| Electoral college | Yes |
| Entrenchments | 2, 1 still active |
| History | |
| First legislature | March 4, 1789 (11 of 13 states) |
| First executive | April 30, 1789 |
| First court | February 2, 1790 |
| Amendments | 27 |
| Last amended | May 5, 1992 |
| Citation | The Constitution of the United States of America, As Amended (PDF), July 25, 2007 |
| Location | National Archives Building in Washington, D.C., U.S. |
| Commissioned by | Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia, U.S. |
| Author(s) | Philadelphia Convention |
| Signatories | 39 of the 55 delegates |
| Media type | Parchment |
| Supersedes | Articles of Confederation |
| Full text | |
 Constitution of the United States of America at Wikisource | |
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The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States.[3] It superseded the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, on March 4, 1789. Originally including seven articles, the Constitution delineates the frame of the federal government. The Constitution's first three articles embody the doctrine of the separation of powers, in which the federal government is divided into three branches: the legislative, consisting of the bicameral Congress (Article I); the executive, consisting of the president and subordinate officers (Article II); and the judicial, consisting of the Supreme Court and other federal courts (Article III). Article IV, Article V, and Article VI embody concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments, the states in relationship to the federal government, and the shared process of constitutional amendment. Article VII establishes the procedure subsequently used by the 13 states to ratify it. The Constitution of the United States is the oldest and longest-standing written and codified national constitution in force in the world.[4][a]
The drafting of the Constitution, often referred to as its framing, was completed at the Constitutional Convention, which assembled at Independence Hall in Philadelphia between May 25 and September 17, 1787.[5] Delegates to the convention were chosen by the state legislatures of 12 of the 13 original states; Rhode Island refused to send delegates.[6] The convention's initial mandate was limited to amending the Articles of Confederation, which had proven highly ineffective in meeting the young nation's needs.[7] Almost immediately, however, delegates began considering measures to replace the Articles.[8] The first proposal discussed, introduced by delegates from Virginia, called for a bicameral (two-house) Congress that was to be elected on a proportional basis based on state population, an elected chief executive, and an appointed judicial branch.[9] An alternative to the Virginia Plan, known as the New Jersey Plan, also called for an elected executive but retained the legislative structure created by the Articles, a unicameral Congress where all states had one vote.[10]
On June 19, 1787, delegates rejected the New Jersey Plan with three states voting in favor, seven against, and one divided. The plan's defeat led to a series of compromises centering primarily on two issues: slavery and proportional representation.[11][12] The first of these pitted Northern states, where slavery was slowly being abolished, against Southern states, whose agricultural economies depended on slave labor.[13] The issue of proportional representation was of similar concern to less populous states, which under the Articles had the same power as larger states.[14] To satisfy interests in the South, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, the delegates agreed to protect the slave trade, that is, the importation of slaves, for 20 years.[15] Slavery was protected further by allowing states to count three-fifths of their slaves as part of their populations, for the purpose of representation in the federal government, and by requiring the return of escaped slaves to their owners, even if captured in states where slavery had been abolished.[16] Finally, the delegates adopted the Connecticut Compromise, which proposed a Congress with proportional representation in the lower house and equal representation in the upper house (the Senate) giving each state two senators.[17] While these compromises held the Union together and aided the Constitution's ratification, slavery continued for six more decades and the less populous states continue to have disproportional representation in the U.S. Senate and Electoral College.[18][12]
Since the Constitution became operational in 1789, it has been amended 27 times.[19][20] The first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty and justice and place restrictions on the powers of government within the U.S. states.[21][22] The majority of the 17 later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures. Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. The original U.S. Constitution[23] was handwritten on five pages of parchment by Jacob Shallus.[24] The first permanent constitution,[b] it is interpreted, supplemented, and implemented by a large body of federal constitutional law and has influenced the constitutions of other nations.
- ^ John H. Lienhard. "Engrossed in the Constitution". Retrieved April 8, 2022.
- ^ 16 Am. Jur. 2d Constitutional Law § 10; "The Constitution went into effect in March of 1789." Referring to Owings v. Speed, 18 U.S. 420, 5 L. Ed. 124 (1820), "The present Constitution of the United States did not commence its operation until the first Wednesday in March, 1789."
- ^ Maier 2010, p. 35.
- ^ Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution, Politifact Virginia website, September 22, 2014.
- ^ Maier 2010, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Biowas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Maier 2010, pp. 11–13.
- ^ Rakove 1996, pp. 102–104.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
AvalonVirginiawas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
AvalonNewJerseywas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Warren 1928, pp. 231–232.
- ^ a b Rakove 1996, p. 58.
- ^ Beeman 2009, pp. 67–68, 310–311.
- ^ Rakove 1996, p. 54.
- ^ Maier 2010, p. 123.
- ^ Bernstein 1987, pp. 167, 177.
- ^ Beeman 2009, pp. 200–204.
- ^ Amar 2005, pp. 20–21, 310.
- ^ United States Senate (1992). "Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America" (PDF). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 25 n.2. ISBN 978-0-16-063268-6.
- ^ "Constitution Day". Senate.gov. United States Senate. Archived from the original on August 12, 2016. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
- ^ Ritchie, Donald. "Bill of Rights". Annenberg Classroom—Glossary. Leonore Annenberg Institute for Civics of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 21, 2014.
- ^ Lloyd, Gordon. "Introduction to the Bill of Rights". TeachingAmericanHistory.org. The Ashbrook Center at Ashland University. Retrieved September 21, 2014.
- ^ "America's Founding Documents". October 30, 2015.
- ^ "Differences between Parchment, Vellum and Paper". August 15, 2016.
- ^ "Pasquale Paoli | Corsican statesman". Encyclopædia Britannica. April 22, 2023.
- ^ Ruppert, Bob (May 11, 2016). "Paoli: Hero of the Sons of Liberty". Journal of the American Revolution. Retrieved May 20, 2017.
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