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Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes.[a][2][3][4][5] Feminism holds the position that modern societies are patriarchal—they prioritize the male point of view—and that women are treated unjustly in these societies.[6] Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.
Originating in late 18th-century Europe, feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter into contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception, legal abortions, and social integration; and to protect women and girls from sexual assault, sexual harassment, and domestic violence.[7] Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for women have also been part of feminist movements.[8]
Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.[9] Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles.[10] Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experiences. Feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender.[11][12]
Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism, which sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework, was contrasted with labour-based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory.[13] Since the 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with the radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate patriarchy. Liberal, socialist, and radical feminism are sometimes referred to as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought.[14]
Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms, such as white feminism and gender-critical feminism, have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism.[15] Some have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.[16]
- ^ Brunell, Laura; Burkett, Elinor (28 February 2024). "Feminism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
- ^ Lengermann & Niebrugge 2010, p. 223.
- ^ Mendus, Susan (2005) [1995]. "Feminism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 291–294. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7.
- ^ Hawkesworth, Mary E. (2006). Globalization and Feminist Activism. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-0-7425-3783-5.
- ^ Beasley, Chris (1999). What Is Feminism?. New York: Sage. pp. 3–11. ISBN 978-0-7619-6335-6.
- ^ Gamble, Sarah (2001) [1998]. "Introduction". The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Postfeminism. Routledge. pp. VII. ISBN 978-0-415-24310-0.
- ^ Echols, Alice (1989). Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1787-6.
- ^ Roberts, Jacob (2017). "Women's Work". Distillations. Vol. 3, no. 1. pp. 6–11. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
- ^ Messer-Davidow, Ellen (2002). Disciplining Feminism: From Social Activism to Academic Discourse. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2843-8.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
hookswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Chodorow, Nancy (1989). Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05116-2.
- ^ Gilligan, Carol (1977). "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and of Morality". Harvard Educational Review. 47 (4): 481–517. doi:10.17763/haer.47.4.g6167429416hg5l0. ISSN 0017-8055. S2CID 146763094. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2008.
- ^ Artwińska, Anna; Mrozik, Agnieszka (3 June 2020). Gender, Generations, And Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and Beyond. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-09514-2.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
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