Food addiction

A food addiction or eating addiction is any behavioral addiction characterized primarily by the compulsive consumption of palatable and hyperpalatable food items. Such foods often have high sugar, fat, and salt contents (HFSS), and markedly activate the reward system in humans and other animals. Those with eating addictions often overconsume such foods despite the adverse consequences (such as excess weight gain, diabetes, and heart disease) associated with their overconsumption.^[1]^[2]

Psychological dependence has also been observed, with the occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when substituting foods low in sugar and fat.^[1] A person cannot develop a trait that codes for an eating disorder. Professionals address psychological dependence by providing behavior therapy^[3] and through administering the YFAS (Yale Food Addiction Scale) questionnaire, a diagnostic criteria of substance dependence.^[4]

High-sugar and high-fat foods have been shown to increase the expression of ΔFosB, an addiction biomarker, in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens;^[1] however, there is very little research on the synaptic plasticity from compulsive food consumption, a phenomenon which is known to be caused by ΔFosB overexpression.^[1]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Olsen CM (December 2011). "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions". Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–22. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. PMC 3139704. PMID 21459101. Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (Komisaruk et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... the transcription factor delta FosB is increased during access to high fat diet (Teegarden and Bale, 2007) or sucrose (Wallace et al, 2008). ...To date, there is very little data directly measuring the effects of food on synaptic plasticity in addiction-related neurocircuitry. ... Following removal of sugar or fat access, withdrawal symptoms including anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors emerge (Colantuoni et al, 2002; Teegarden and Bale, 2007). After this period of "abstinence", operant testing reveals "craving" and "seeking" behavior for sugar (Avena et al, 2005) or fat (Ward et al, 2007), as well as "incubation of craving" (Grimm et al, 2001; Lu et al, 2004; Grimm et al, 2005), and "relapse" (Nair et al, 2009b) following abstinence from sugar. In fact, when given a re-exposure to sugar after a period of abstinence, animals consume a much greater amount of sugar than during previous sessions (Avena et al., 2005)."Table 1"
^ Hebebrand J, Albayrak Ö, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014). ""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 47: 295–306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016. PMID 25205078.
• Evidence for addiction to specific macronutrients is lacking in humans.
• 'Eating addiction' describes a behavioral addiction. ...
We concur with Hone-Blanchet and Fecteau (2014) that it is premature to conclude validity of the food addiction phenotype in humans from the current behavioral and neurobiological evidence gained in rodent models. ... To conclude, the society as a whole should be aware of the differences between addiction in the context of substance use versus an addictive behavior. As we pointed out in this review, there is very little evidence to indicate that humans can develop a 'Glucose/Sucrose/Fructose Use Disorder' as a diagnosis within the DSM-5 category Substance Use Disorders. We do, however, view both rodent and human data as consistent with the existence of addictive eating behavior.
^ Ho KS, Nichaman MZ, Taylor WC, Lee ES, Foreyt JP (November 1995). "Binge eating disorder, retention, and dropout in an adult obesity program". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 18 (3): 291–4. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199511)18:3<291::AID-EAT2260180312>3.0.CO;2-Y. PMID 8556026.
^ Hebebrand J, Albayrak Ö, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014). ""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 47: 295–306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016. hdl:2164/4057. PMID 25205078.

[Natural_and_drug_addictions-1] Olsen CM (December 2011). "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions". Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–22. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. PMC 3139704. PMID 21459101. Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (Komisaruk et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... the transcription factor delta FosB is increased during access to high fat diet (Teegarden and Bale, 2007) or sucrose (Wallace et al, 2008). ...To date, there is very little data directly measuring the effects of food on synaptic plasticity in addiction-related neurocircuitry. ... Following removal of sugar or fat access, withdrawal symptoms including anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors emerge (Colantuoni et al, 2002; Teegarden and Bale, 2007). After this period of "abstinence", operant testing reveals "craving" and "seeking" behavior for sugar (Avena et al, 2005) or fat (Ward et al, 2007), as well as "incubation of craving" (Grimm et al, 2001; Lu et al, 2004; Grimm et al, 2005), and "relapse" (Nair et al, 2009b) following abstinence from sugar. In fact, when given a re-exposure to sugar after a period of abstinence, animals consume a much greater amount of sugar than during previous sessions (Avena et al., 2005)."Table 1"

[Food/eating_addiction_review-2] Hebebrand J, Albayrak Ö, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014). ""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 47: 295–306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016. PMID 25205078.
• Evidence for addiction to specific macronutrients is lacking in humans.
• 'Eating addiction' describes a behavioral addiction. ...
We concur with Hone-Blanchet and Fecteau (2014) that it is premature to conclude validity of the food addiction phenotype in humans from the current behavioral and neurobiological evidence gained in rodent models. ... To conclude, the society as a whole should be aware of the differences between addiction in the context of substance use versus an addictive behavior. As we pointed out in this review, there is very little evidence to indicate that humans can develop a 'Glucose/Sucrose/Fructose Use Disorder' as a diagnosis within the DSM-5 category Substance Use Disorders. We do, however, view both rodent and human data as consistent with the existence of addictive eating behavior.

[3] Ho KS, Nichaman MZ, Taylor WC, Lee ES, Foreyt JP (November 1995). "Binge eating disorder, retention, and dropout in an adult obesity program". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 18 (3): 291–4. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199511)18:3<291::AID-EAT2260180312>3.0.CO;2-Y. PMID 8556026.

[:1-4] Hebebrand J, Albayrak Ö, Adan R, Antel J, Dieguez C, de Jong J, Leng G, Menzies J, Mercer JG, Murphy M, van der Plasse G, Dickson SL (November 2014). ""Eating addiction", rather than "food addiction", better captures addictive-like eating behavior". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 47: 295–306. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016. hdl:2164/4057. PMID 25205078.

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