Reforms of the Hongwu Emperor

The reforms of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder and first emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, in the 1360s–1390s were a comprehensive set of economic, social, and political changes aimed at rebuilding the Chinese state after years of conflict and disasters caused by the decline of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and the Chinese resistance against Mongol rule. These reforms resulted in the restoration of a centralized Chinese state, the growth of the Ming economy, and the emergence of a relatively egalitarian society with reduced wealth disparities.

The Hongwu Emperor (r.1368–1398) attempted to create a self-sufficient society based on agriculture, with a stable system of relationships that would minimize commercial activity and trade in cities. The government's motto was "encouraging agriculture and restraining commerce" (重农怐商; zhongnong yishang).^[1] In this newly organized society, agriculture was the main source of wealth and the backbone of the economy, and the authorities provided support in every possible way. Two-thirds of the land was owned by the state, and it was divided among small peasants who directly cultivated the land. In contrast, large landowners were systematically restricted and persecuted. Industry and crafts were under state management, and trade was strictly supervised. The emperor showed concern for the common people and aimed to ensure a peaceful life for them, while also limiting the extravagances of the wealthy.

The emperor sought to exert control over all aspects of the country's life. The newly established Ming state administration was small and cost-effective. The government was led by the emperor's old comrades, who now served as generals in his army. Over time, they were gradually replaced by the emperor's sons. Routine administrative tasks were carried out by officials who had received a Confucian education. Taxation was primarily based on in-kind levies on agricultural and manufactured goods, as well as compulsory labor in state-owned factories and construction sites. The emperor's social ideal did not align with the use of money, so the government attempted to restrict its use. However, the lack of a suitable currency, such as copper or silver, and the unreliability of paper money, which could not be exchanged for precious metals and was prone to inflation, made it difficult to implement this policy.

In the long run, the rebuilding of China's agricultural base and the improvement of communication, along with the development of a military transport network, had an unintended consequence - the growth of markets along the restored roads and the spread of urban influences into rural areas. This led to the gentry, a class of Confucian-educated landowners who held official positions, being influenced by the emerging consumer culture. Over time, merchant families also began to integrate into the educated bureaucracy and adopt the customs of the gentry. This shift also brought about changes in social and political philosophies, administrative institutions, as well as in art and literature.