Scramble for Africa

Major pre-colonial states in Africa (excluding East African states such as Ajuran, Adal, Buganda, Rwanda, Kilwa, and Imerina, and southern African ones: Mapungubwe, Rozvi, Maravi, Uukwanyama, and Mthwakazi)

Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial powers in 1913: Belgian (orange), British (pink), French (purple), German (blue), Italian (lime green), Portuguese (dark green), and Spanish (yellow) empires

The Scramble for Africa^[a] was the conquest and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers driven by the Second Industrial Revolution during the era of "New Imperialism" (1833–1914): Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%, with only Liberia and Ethiopia retaining sovereignty, along with Egba,^[b] Senusiyya,^[2] Mbunda,^[3] and the Ovambo kingdoms,^[4][5] which were later conquered.

The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".^[6] In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires, which provided the impetus for the colonisation.^[7] The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.^[8]

With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies gained independence during the Cold War, and decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on pan-Africanism.^[9]

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