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Symbolic racism

Symbolic racism (also known as modern-symbolic racism, modern racism,[1] symbolic prejudice, and racial resentment) is a coherent belief system that reflects an underlying one-dimensional prejudice towards a racialized ethnicity. Symbolic racism is more of a general term than it is one specifically related to prejudice towards black people. These beliefs may cause the subject to discriminate against black people and to justify this discrimination.[2] Some people do not view symbolic racism as prejudice since it is not linked directly to race but is indirectly linked through social and political issues.[3]

David O. Sears and P.J. Henry characterize symbolic racism as the expression or endorsement of four specific themes or beliefs:[4]

  1. Black people no longer face much prejudice or discrimination.
  2. The failure of black people to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough.
  3. Black people are demanding too much too fast.
  4. Black people have gotten more than they deserve.

Symbolic racism is a form of modern implicit racism, as it is more subtle and indirect than more overt forms of racism,[5] such as Jim Crow laws. As symbolic racism develops through socialization and its processes occur without conscious awareness,[6] an individual with symbolically racist beliefs may genuinely oppose racism and believe they are not racist.[7] Symbolic racism is perhaps the most prevalent contemporary form of racism.[8]

The concept of symbolic racism has been criticized for being inconsistent in measurement and concept over time.[4] New experiments also provide evidence that responses do not differ when groups other than African Americans are referenced.[9]

  1. ^ Tarman, Christopher & Sears, David O. (2005). "The Conceptualization and Measurement of Symbolic Racism". The Journal of Politics. 67 (3): 731–761. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.551.3532. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00337.x.
  2. ^ Bobocel, D. Ramona; Son Hing, Leanne S.; Davey, Liane M.; Stanley, David J.; Zanna, Mark P. (1998). "Justice-based opposition to social policies: Is it genuine?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 75 (3): 653–669. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.976.2033. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.653.
  3. ^ McConahay, John B.; Hardee, Betty B.; Batts, Valerie (July 2016). "Has Racism Declined in America?". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 25 (4): 563–579. doi:10.1177/002200278102500401. JSTOR 173910. S2CID 145257962.
  4. ^ a b Henry, P. J.; Sears, D. O. (2008). "Symbolic and Modern Racism". In Moore, J. H. (ed.). Encyclopedia of race and racism. Volume 3 (1st ed.). Macmillan. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-0-02-866023-3.
  5. ^ James, Erika Hayes; Brief, Arthur P.; Dietz, Joerg; Cohen, Robin R. (2001). "Prejudice matters: Understanding the reactions of Whites to affirmative action programs targeted to benefit Blacks". Journal of Applied Psychology. 86 (6): 1120–1128. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.6.1120. PMID 11768055.
  6. ^ Whitley, Bernard E.; Kite, Mary E. (2010). The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-81128-2.: 196 
  7. ^ Harrison, David A.; Kravitz, David A.; Mayer, David M.; Leslie, Lisa M.; Lev-Arey, Dalit (2006). "Understanding attitudes toward affirmative action programs in employment: Summary and meta-analysis of 35 years of research". Journal of Applied Psychology. 91 (5): 1013–1036. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.2732. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1013. PMID 16953765.
  8. ^ Sears, David O.; Henry, P. J. (2002). "Race and Politics: The Theory of Symbolic Racism" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2012.
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mellor (2003) was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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