Back Асанскрит бызшәа Abkhazian Sanskrit Afrikaans Sanskrit ALS ሳንስክሪት Amharic Sanscrito AN Sanscritisc ANG संस्कृत भाषा ANP اللغة السنسكريتية Arabic سنسكريتية ARY سانسكريتى ARZ

Bahasa Sanskerta

Untuk bentuk awal Sanskerta Kuno, lihat Bahasa Weda.
Bahasa Sanskerta
संस्कृतम्
Saṃskṛtam
Saṁskrtavāk
Saṃskṛtam dalam aksara Dewanagari
Pengucapan[ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm]  ( dengarkan)
Dituturkan diAsia
WilayahIndia dan Indonesia serta beberapa wilayah lainnya di Asia Selatan dan Tenggara
EraAbad Milenium ke-2 SM – 600 SM (Bahasa Sanskerta Weda);[1]
600 SM-sekarang (Bahasa Sanskerta Klasik)
Perincian data penutur

Jumlah penutur beserta (jika ada) metode pengambilan, jenis, tanggal, dan tempat.[2][3]

  • 2.212 (1971)
  • 6.106 (1981)
  • 49.736 (1991)
  • 14.135 (2001)
  • 26.490 (bahasa ibu, 2011)
Bentuk awal
Aslinya merupakan bahasa lisan. Tidak ada aksara yang resmi untuk bahasa ini; tetapi sejak milenium pertama Masehi, bahasa ini ditulis dalam aksara Brahmi dan turunannya.[a][4][5]
Status resmi
Diakui sebagai
bahasa minoritas di
Kode bahasa
ISO 639-1sa
ISO 639-2san
ISO 639-3san – kode inklusif
Kode individual:
cls – Bahasa Sanskerta Klasik
vsn – Bahasa Weda
Glottologsans1269[6]
IETFsa
Status pemertahanan
Terancam
CRSingkatan dari Critically endangered (Terancam Kritis)
SESingkatan dari Severely endangered (Terancam berat)
DESingkatan dari Devinitely endangered (Terancam)
VUSingkatan dari Vulnerable (Rentan)
Aman
NESingkatan dari Not Endangered (Tidak terancam)
ICHEL Red Book: Extinct

Sanskerta diklasifikasikan sebagai bahasa yang telah punah (EX) pada Atlas Bahasa-Bahasa di Dunia yang Terancam Kepunahan

C10
Kategori 10
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa telah punah (Extinct)
C9
Kategori 9
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa sudah ditinggalkan dan hanya segelintir yang menuturkannya (Dormant)
C8b
Kategori 8b
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa hampir punah (Nearly extinct)
C8a
Kategori 8a
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa sangat sedikit dituturkan dan terancam berat untuk punah (Moribund)
C7
Kategori 7
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa mulai mengalami penurunan ataupun penutur mulai berpindah menggunakan bahasa lain (Shifting)
C6b
Kategori 6b
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa mulai terancam (Threatened)
C6a
Kategori 6a
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa masih cukup banyak dituturkan (Vigorous)
C5
Kategori 5
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa mengalami pertumbuhan populasi penutur (Developing)
C4
Kategori 4
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa digunakan dalam institusi pendidikan (Educational)
C3
Kategori 3
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa digunakan cukup luas (Wider Communication)
C2
Kategori 2
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa yang digunakan di berbagai wilayah (Provincial)
C1
Kategori 1
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa nasional maupun bahasa resmi dari suatu negara (National)
C0
Kategori 0
Kategori ini menunjukkan bahwa bahasa merupakan bahasa pengantar internasional ataupun bahasa yang digunakan pada kancah antar bangsa (International)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
EGIDS SIL Ethnologue: C4 Educational
Bahasa Sanskerta dikategorikan sebagai C4 Educational menurut SIL Ethnologue, artinya bahasa ini digunakan di institusi pendidikan, baik dalam bahasa ajar-mengajar maupun sebagai kurikulum ajaran
[sunting di Wikidata]
Referensi: [7][8][9]

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Bahasa Sanskerta (ejaan tidak baku: Sansekerta, Sangsekerta, Sanskrit,[10] aksara Dewanagari: संस्कृतम्, saṃskṛtam[11]) adalah bahasa kuno Asia Selatan yang merupakan cabang Indo-Arya dari rumpun bahasa Indo-Eropa.[12][13][14] Bahasa ini berkembang di Asia Selatan setelah moyangnya mengalami difusi trans-budaya di wilayah barat laut Asia Selatan pada Zaman Perunggu.[15][16] Bahasa Sanskerta adalah bahasa suci umat Hindu, Buddha, dan Jain. Bahasa ini merupakan basantara Asia Selatan pada zaman kuno dan pertengahan, dan menjadi bahasa agama, kebudayaan, dan politik yang tersebar di sejumlah wilayah di Asia Tenggara, dan Tengah.[17][18] Bahasa ini memberikan banyak pengaruh bahasa di Asia Selatan, Tenggara, dan Timur, khususnya melalui kosakata yang dipelajari.[19]

Bahasa Sanskerta masih mempertahankan ciri-ciri bahasa Indo-Arya kuno.[20][21] Bentuk arkaisnya adalah bahasa Weda yang ditemukan dalam Regweda, kumpulan 1.028 himne yang disusun oleh masyarakat suku Indo-Arya yang bermigrasi di wilayah yang kini Afganistan hingga Pakistan dan kemudian India Utara.[22][23] Bahasa Weda ini berakulturasi dengan bahasa kuno yang telah ada di anak benua India, menyerap kosakata yang berkaitan dengan nama-nama hewan dan tumbuhan; dan tambahannya, rumpun bahasa Dravida kuno memengaruhi fonologi dan sintaksis Sanskerta.[24] "Sanskerta" dapat juga merujuk pada bahasa Sanskerta klasik yang tata bahasanya dibakukan pada pertengahan milenium pertama SM secara sangat lengkap,[b] yang termuat dalam kitab Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Delapan Bab") karya Pāṇini.[26] Pujangga dan dramawan besar Kalidasa menulis menggunakan bahasa Sanskerta klasik, dan dasar-dasar aritmetika klasik pertama kalinya dideskripsikan dalam bahasa Sanskerta klasik.[c][27] Dua wiracarita besar Mahabharata dan Ramayana, disusun menggunakan gaya bahasa cerita lisan yang digunakan di India Utara antara 400 SM dan 300 SM, dan kira-kira sezaman dengan bahasa Sanskerta klasik.[28] Pada abad-abad berikutnya bahasa Sanskerta mulai terikat tradisi, berhenti dipelajari sebagai bahasa ibu, dan akhirnya berhenti berkembang sebagai bahasa yang hidup.[29]

Nyanyian Regweda sangat mirip dengan puisi arkais berbahasa Iran dan Yunani, Gathas dalam bahasa Avesta dan Illiad karya Homeros.[30] Karena Regweda mengalir dari mulut ke mulut dengan cara rajin menghafal,[31][32] dan dianggap sebagai sebuah teks tunggal tanpa varian apa pun,[33] Regweda melestarikan morfologi dan sintaksis yang mendorong rekonstruksi moyang dari bahasa tersebut, bahasa Proto-Indo-Eropa.[30] Bahasa Sanskerta tidak memiliki sistem tulisan yang spesifik: sekitar peralihan milenium pertama Masehi, bahasa ini ditulis dalam aksara-aksara berumpun Brahmi dan saat ini menggunakan aksara Dewanagari.[a][4][5]

Status, fungsi, dan penempatan bahasa Sanskerta sebagai warisan sejarah dan budaya India diakui dalam bahasa resmi di Jadwal Kedelapan dari Konstitusi India.[34][35] Namun, di luar kebangkitannya,[36][37] tidak ada masyarakat yang mengakui bahasa ini sebagai bahasa ibu di India.[37][38][39] Pada sensus terakhir di India, sekitar ribuan warga negara India mengakui bahasa Sanskerta sebagai bahasa ibu mereka,[d] dan angka itu dianggap menandakan harapan penyelarasan dengan prestise berbahasa.[37][41] Bahasa Sanskerta diajarkan di gurukula sejak zaman kuno; dan kini diajarkan pada sekolah menengah pertama. Sekolah modern bahasa Sanskerta tertua adalah Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, didirikan pada 1791 pada masa pemerintahan Perusahaan Hindia Timur Britania.[42] Bahasa Sanskerta menjadi bahasa liturgi bagi umat Hindu dan Buddha, digunakan untuk membacakan nyanyian dan mantra.

  1. ^ Uta Reinöhl (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. hlm. xiv, 1–16. ISBN 978-0-19-873666-0. 
  2. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20090411183701/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement5.htm.
  3. ^ http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf.
  4. ^ a b Jain, Dhanesh (2007). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". Dalam George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. hlm. 47–66, 51. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans. 
  5. ^ a b Salomon, Richard (2007). "The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages". Dalam George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. hlm. 67–102. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Although in modern usage Sanskrit is most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it does have a special historical connection with Nagari. 
  6. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, ed. (2023). "Sanskerta". Glottolog 4.8. Jena, Jerman: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 
  7. ^ "UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" (dalam bahasa bahasa Inggris, Prancis, Spanyol, Rusia, and Tionghoa). UNESCO. 2011. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 29 April 2022. Diakses tanggal 26 Juni 2011. 
  8. ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Inggris). UNESCO. 2010. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 31 Mei 2022. Diakses tanggal 31 Mei 2022. 
  9. ^ "Bahasa Sanskerta". www.ethnologue.com (dalam bahasa Inggris). SIL Ethnologue. 
  10. ^ Sanskerta di Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
  11. ^ Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). Revised and enlarged edition of Prin. V.S. Apte's The practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan. hlm. 1596. from संस्कृत saṃskṛitə past passive participle: Made perfect, refined, polished, cultivated. -तः -tah A word formed regularly according to the rules of grammar, a regular derivative. -तम् -tam Refined or highly polished speech, the Sanskṛit language; संस्कृतं नाम दैवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभिः ("named sanskritam the divine language elaborated by the sages") from Kāvyadarśa.1. 33. of Daṇḍin 
  12. ^ Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BC. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European. 
  13. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Bauer2017p90
  14. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Ramat2015p26
  15. ^ Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. hlm. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8. Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. 
  16. ^ Pinkney, Andrea Marion (2014). "Revealing the Vedas in 'Hinduism': Foundations and issues of interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions". Dalam Bryan S. Turner; Oscar Salemink. Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia. Routledge. hlm. 38–. ISBN 978-1-317-63646-5. According to Asko Parpola, the Proto-Indo-Aryan civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the Ṛgveda. Michael Witzel has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the Ṛgveda changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the Ṛgveda. On the basis of internal evidence, the Ṛgveda is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region. 
  17. ^ Michael C. Howard 2012, hlm. 21
  18. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. hlm. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6. Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power. 
  19. ^ Burrow (1973), hlm. 62–64.
  20. ^ Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit". Dalam Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. hlm. 497–. ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') refers to several varieties of Old Indo-Aryan whose most archaic forms are found in Vedic texts: the Rigveda (Ṛgveda), Yajurveda, Sāmveda, Atharvaveda, with various branches. 
  21. ^ Alfred C. Woolner (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. hlm. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9. If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based. 
  22. ^ Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms. Oxford University Press. hlm. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India. 
  23. ^ Witzel, Michael (2006). "Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations". Dalam Victor H. Mair. Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. hlm. 158–190, 160. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4. The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500 BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our disposal is the Rgveda (RV); it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit). 
  24. ^ Shulman, David (2016). Tamil. Harvard University Press. hlm. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-674-97465-4. (p. 17) Similarly, we find a large number of other items relating to flora and fauna, grains, pulses, and spices—that is, words that we might expect to have made their way into Sanskrit from the linguistic environment of prehistoric or early-historic India. ... (p. 18) Dravidian certainly influenced Sanskrit phonology and syntax from early on ... (p 19) Vedic Sanskrit was in contact, from very ancient times, with speakers of Dravidian languages, and that the two language families profoundly influenced one another. 
  25. ^ a b Evans, Nicholas (2009). Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us. John Wiley & Sons. hlm. 27–. ISBN 978-0-631-23305-3. 
  26. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Evans-20092
  27. ^ Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). "Arithmetic". Dalam Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis. Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. hlm. 46–48. ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1. The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West. 
  28. ^ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. hlm. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The term ‘Epic Sanskrit’ refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period. 
  29. ^ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. hlm. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Astadhyayi, attributed to the grammarian Panini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition. 
  30. ^ a b Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms. Oxford University Press. hlm. 2–. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance. 
  31. ^ Staal 1986.
  32. ^ Filliozat 2004, hlm. 360–375.
  33. ^ Filliozat 2004, hlm. 139.
  34. ^ Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy. MIT Press. hlm. 469–. ISBN 978-0-262-03470-8. The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two. 
  35. ^ Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. hlm. 58–. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. As Mahapatra says: “It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment” ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions. 
  36. ^ "Indian village where people speak in Sanskrit". BBC News (dalam bahasa Inggris). 22 December 2014. Diakses tanggal 30 September 2020. 
  37. ^ a b c Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). Where are the Sanskrit speakers?. Chennai: The Hindu. Diakses tanggal 11 October 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue. 
  38. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Ruppel2017
  39. ^ Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". Dalam Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar. Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants’ languages. 
  40. ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit
  41. ^ Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages – India / States / Union Territories – Sanskrit (PDF), Census of India, 2011, hlm. 30, diakses tanggal 4 October 2020 
  42. ^ Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India. Duke University Press. hlm. 171–. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5. 


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